For other versions of this document, see http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-RL31767 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Order Code RL31767 Report for Congress Received through the CRS Web Eliminating International Child Labor: U.S. and International Initiatives February 28, 2003 Tiaji Salaam Analyst in Foreign Affairs Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Division Congressional Research Service ~ The Library of Congress Eliminating International Child Labor: U.S. and International Initiatives Summary International child labor has become an increasingly important issue in discussions concerning international trade, human rights and foreign aid. While a number of international, national and local initiatives seek to abolish the practice, there continues to be a debate on what constitutes child labor. Some consider any work undertaken by children to be child labor, while others may use the term to refer to work under abusive conditions. The International Labor Organization (ILO) defines child labor as a form of work that is inherently hazardous, employs children below the internationally recognized minimum age, or is exploitative. Child labor is used in this report as defined by the ILO. According to the ILO about 246 million children were engaged in child labor in 2000. Some 186 million child laborers were below the age of 15, and approximately 110 million were below the age of 12. While awareness of the issue has increased, the ability to address the complex problem has been complicated by a number of related issues including, rising poverty, surging HIV/AIDS infection rates, and a lack of relevant education. News stories have featured children working in export industries (such as textiles, clothing, carpets and footwear) and caused international uproar. While the news stories have contributed to a heightened awareness about the problem of international child labor, the ILO has found that child workers in export industries are relatively few compared to those employed in activities geared to domestic consumption. Congressional support for the abolition of international child labor, particularly the worst forms of child labor, is very strong. Congress has funded programs to combat international child labor, initiated bills that expand the United States' role in the global fight against child labor, and included clauses that require action on eliminating child labor in international trade agreements. Although Congress has consistently boosted American efforts to eliminate child labor world-wide, there are a number of issues that continue to impede these efforts, including: ineffective enforcement mechanisms; sparse monitoring systems; and insufficient funding for programs that alleviate poverty, decrease incidences of HIV/AIDS, and increase access to relevant education. This report will discuss the ILO definition of child labor, outline the scope of the problem, explain the difficulties in eliminating it, describe U.S. and international efforts to counter exploitative child labor, and present some issues Congress may consider. This report will be updated as events warrant. Contents Key Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Global Incidences of Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Difficulties in Eliminating Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Child Labor and Poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Child Labor in the Shadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Child Labor in Various Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Child Labor and HIV/AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Child Labor and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Efforts to Eliminate International Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 International Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 U.S. Government Child Labor Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 The U.S. Department of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Technical Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 U.S. Department of Treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 U.S. Agency for International Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 U.S. Department of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Congressional Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Issues and Questions for Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Lack of Enforcement Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Linking Child Labor to International Trade and Foreign Aid . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Lack of Global Monitoring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Child Labor as a Development Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Definitions of Child Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 List of Figures Figure 1. Economically Active Children and Child Labor, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Figure 2. Children in the Worst Forms of Child Labor, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 List of Tables Table 1. Estimates of Children in Economic Activity, Child Labor, and Hazardous Work, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Table 2. Estimated Number of Children in Worst Forms of Child Labor, 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Table 3. USDOL-Funded Child Labor Technical Assistance Projects, FY1995-FY2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Table 4. Estimates of Economically Active Children in 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Eliminating International Child Labor: U.S. and International Initiatives In November 1999, during the World Trade Organization (WTO) conference in Seattle, hundreds of protestors took to the street to protest a number of issues, including the international use of child labor, which has become increasingly important in discussions on international trade, human rights and international assistance. While awareness of the issue has increased, the ability to address the complex problem has been complicated by a number of related factors including rising poverty, surging HIV/AIDS infection rates, and a lack of relevant education. This report will outline the scope of the international child labor problem, explain the difficulties in eliminating it, describe U.S. and international child labor programs, and present some issues Congress may consider. Child labor is a term that is used in a number of ways. Some use it to describe any work undertaken by children, while others use the term to refer to abusive work. The International Labor Organization (ILO)1 defines child labor as a form of work that is inherently hazardous, employs children below the internationally recognized minimum age2, or is exploitative. This report refers to child labor as it is defined by the ILO. Age appropriate work can foster responsibility, add to a family's income, and teach children employable skills. It does not inhibit children from attaining basic education, does not employ children below the internationally recognized minimum age and does not pose a threat to the child's mental, physical and emotional health. The ILO collects data on child labor and "children in economic activity", because it often serves as a proxy quantifier for child labor.3 "Children in economic activity" encompasses all children engaged in work, including child laborers. Experts believe it is critical to collect this data, because many governments do not collect employment data on those below their minimum working age. Consequently, data on the scope and magnitude of child labor is scarce and is often not collected. Furthermore, the data that is available, including ILO data, has some margin of error.4 The ILO estimates that nearly 352 million children were engaged in some form of 1 The ILO is a United Nations specialized agency that focuses on labor standards and the rights of workers. It is unique among the U.N. agencies because its members include representatives of the major labor and business organizations in each country as well as government representatives. 2 Convention 138 calls for all ratifying countries to establish a minimum age of employment no lower than the age of completion of compulsory education or 15 years. Developing countries have the flexibility to set the minimum age at 14 years. 3 Regional estimates of economically active children is provided in the appendix, Table 4. 4 This is discussed further in Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. CRS-2 economic activity in 2000, and about 246 million children were engaged in child labor. Some 186 million child laborers were below the age of 15, and approximately 110 million were below the age of 12.5 Key Statistics Table 1. Estimates of Children in Economic Activity, Child Labor, and Hazardous Work, 2000 (in thousands) Economically Children in Age Group Child Labor Active Children Hazardous Work 5-14 210,800 186,300 111,300 15-17 140,900 59,200 59,200 Total 351,700 245,500 170,500 Source: ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor Table 2. Estimated Number of Children in Worst Forms of Child Labor, 2000 (in thousands) Forced & Other Armed Prostitution & Region Trafficked Bonded Illicit Conflict Pornography Labor Activities Asia/Pacific 250 5,500 120 590 220 Latin America 550 3 30 750 260 & Caribbean Africa 200 210 120 50 n/a Industrialized n/a n/a 1 420 110 Economies Transition 200 n/a 5 n/a n/a Economies Total 1,200 5,700 300 1,800 600 Source: ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor 5 ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. Geneva: ILO Labor Office, p. 10. CRS-3 Global Incidences of Child Labor According to ILO estimates, the largest number of child workers under 14 years old are in the Asia-Pacific region. However, Sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to have the highest proportion of working children, with nearly 30% of its children engaged in some form of economic activity. About one in three children below the age of 15 is economically active in the region.6 The child work ratios in other major world regions are all projected to be below 20 percent.7 Furthermore, every fourth child in sub-Saharan Africa appears to start work before the age of 10.8 Africa's relatively high poverty rate, as well as its relatively high proportion of individuals both residing and employed in rural areas, may contribute to the large number of children at work. According to a World Bank report, child labor participation rates are much higher in rural than in urban areas, and three-quarters of working children work in family enterprises.9 The report further emphasizes that child labor is, and will continue to be, common in a large number of countries until poverty is substantially reduced. The ILO estimates that nearly half (48.5%) of all economically active children were engaged in hazardous work, which it defines as "any activity or occupation which, by its nature or type has, or leads to adverse effects on the child's safety, health and moral development".10 Much agricultural work is included in this category because it may involve the use of heavy machinery or exposure to pesticides. An ILO report concluded that 55% of children below 12 years of age were working in a hazardous occupation or situation in 2000. Children between 12 years old and 14 years old were the largest age group working in a hazardous occupation or situation. Sixty-six percent of all child laborers aged 12 through 14 were reported to be engaged in hazardous work.11 The ILO chart below delineates the activity of those engaged in child labor, who comprise nearly 70% of all economically active children. An overwhelming majority (69.5%) of these child laborers is engaged in hazardous work. The deceptively small percentage of child laborers (3.4%) engaged in the "worst forms of child labor" represents 8.4 million children. The remaining 27% of the child laborers were not working in either hazardous conditions or the worst forms of child labor, but they were still engaged in forms of child labor which, according to the ILO, "must be abolished."12 6 ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. Geneva: ILO Labor Office, April 2002, p.9. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid, p.17. 9 Fallon, Peter and Zafiris Tzannatos, Child Labor: Issues and Directions for the World Bank. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1998, p.2 10 ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. Geneva: ILO Labor Office, April 2002, p.33. 11 Ibid, p.23. 12 For the ILO definition of child labor see the Appendix. CRS-4 Figure 1. Economically Active Children and Child Labor, 2000 (in millions) Source: ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. A significant number of children (8.4 million) were estimated to be involved in the "unconditional worst forms of child labor," which includes prostitution and pornography, trafficking, forced and bonded labor, armed conflict, and other illicit activities.13 Of the 8.4 million ensnared in the worst forms of child labor a great majority (5.7 million) were either in forced or bonded labor, with another 1.8 million engaged in prostitution or pornography. The ILO estimates that some 1.2 million children were trafficked in 2000, while 600,000 were engaged in illicit activities and 300,000 participated in armed conflict. Most child soldiers were found in Africa and the Asia-Pacific region.14 The chart below shows the distribution of children engaged in the worst forms of child labor. 13 The 8.4 million children in the worst forms of child labor does not include the 1.2 million trafficked children to avoid double counting. The ILO assumes that children are generally trafficked into another worst form of child labor, such as prostitution. 14 ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. Geneva: ILO Labor Office, April 2002, p.25. CRS-5 Figure 2. Children in the Worst Forms of Child Labor, 2000 (in thousands) Source: ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor Difficulties in Eliminating Child Labor Child Labor and Poverty Global efforts to eliminate child labor have been complicated by a range of factors, including poverty, lack of access to education, soaring HIV/AIDS rates, and the ability to conceal the use of child labor. Historically, poverty and child labor are inextricably linked. Families in many countries rely on the income from children to cover basic needs. A World Bank report found that countries with per capita income of $500 or less (at 1987 prices) have labor force participation rates of 30%-60% for children aged 10-14 years. In contrast, wealthier developing countries, with incomes between $500 and $1,000, have lower child labor participation rates at 10%-30% for the same age group.15 As children work to contribute to their families' short-term needs the cycle of poverty continues. Child labor hinders economic development and perpetuates poverty by keeping the children of the poor out of school, limiting their prospects for upward social mobility, and preventing them from gaining the education and skills that would enable them as adults to increase their contributions to economic growth 15 P. Fallon and Z. Tzannatos, Child Labor: Issues and directions for the World Bank. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998, p.2. CRS-6 and prosperity.16 Some have suggested that child labor suppresses wages, because it increases the total labor supply. A recent article from the Journal of International Affairs argues that if child labor is left to proliferate, adult labor could be threatened. "[I]n the same measure as females replaced men as factory workers, so child labor, if not restricted, will crowd a proportionate number of adults out of employment."17 Child Labor in the Shadows Children working in export industries (such as textiles, clothing, carpets and footwear) have been featured on news stories causing international uproar. An NBC Dateline report recently highlighted the grim side of child labor in a story aired on June 23, 2002. The news story entitled, Slaves to Fashion; Child labor and abuse in Indian silk factories, showed children working in dirty, sweltering factories with blaring music (to fight fatigue), no running water, no toilets, and no place to rest. It reported that these children lived and worked in factories whose internal temperature often exceeded 100 degrees, and which remained locked with armed guards barring entrance or exit. Many of the factories were in back alleys, accessible only to those that worked in them. Hidden cameras showed children picking silk out of boiling pots with their bare hands, standing at machines purposely built for them, and cowering as abusive employers liberally hit or threatened them. Research has indicated that children more often work in small subcontracting shops, like these, or homework situations rather than in large-scale, formal factories.18 An important part of the story was a segment that showed the difficulty in monitoring and tracking goods produced with child labor. An undercover news reporter held an extensive interview with a silk exporter who admitted that her company routinely sends its silk to Italy to receive an Italian label, minimizing the likelihood that her company would be scrutinized for child labor practices, and guaranteeing a higher price for the goods.19 This practice reveals the difficulty in abolishing child labor as companies continue to discover ways to circumvent monitoring systems. Child Labor in Various Industries The Dateline story raised awareness about some aspects of child labor. However, the ILO has found that child workers in export industries are relatively few compared to those employed in activities geared to domestic consumption. It is estimated that 16 ILO, A Future Without Child Labor: Global Report under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. Geneva: International Labor Conference 90th Session 2002, p.1. 17 Luis F. Lopez-Calva, Child Labor: Myths, theories and facts. Journal of International Affairs, Volume 55, Issue 1, October 1, 2001, p.2. 18 U.S. Department of Labor, The Apparel Industry and Codes of Conduct: A solution to the International Child Labor Problem?. Washington, D.C., 1996, p.4. 19 All information regarding the Dateline report came from the Dateline transcript, Slaves to Fashion; Child labor and abuse in Indian silk factories. National Broadcasting Company, Inc., 23 June, 2002. CRS-7 fewer than 5% of child laborers are employed in the export manufacturing or mining sectors, and only 1-2% are employed in export-oriented agriculture.20 This reinforces the argument that child labor needs to be addressed at the national and local levels. Surveys have revealed that the majority of children who work (70%) are engaged in agriculture, with less than 9% involved in manufacturing, trade and restaurant work. Only 6.5% were found to be engaged in social and personal services, including domestic work. Some 4% worked in transport, storage and communications, and 3% were found to be involved in construction, mining and quarrying.21 Not only were most children found to be engaged in agricultural work, but most children were also found in the informal sector. This means that children will be less likely found in highly organized commercial plantations. Nonetheless, children are still a significant portion of the commercial agricultural workforce, because the large plantations often subcontract to small-scale family farms that may use child labor. Studies in Brazil, Kenya and Mexico have shown that children under 15 make up between 25% and 30% of the total labor force in production of various commodities.22 The common practice of subcontracting is mirrored in manufacturing and a host of other industries, underscoring the importance of developing national programs that address poverty, access to basic education, and include child labor initiatives in national labor legislation. Child Labor and HIV/AIDS Child labor has become even more difficult to eliminate with the rapid spread of HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS increases the number of child orphans and street children, inhibits children's ability to regularly attend school, makes children more vulnerable to sexual abuse and prostitution, and ultimately elevates the demand for child labor. HIV/AIDS has already increased the number of child orphans. Before HIV/AIDS, about 2% of children in the developing world were orphans; by the end of the 1990s about 10% of children were orphans in some countries. An estimated 13 million children have lost their mothers or both parents to HIV/AIDS; and 27 million children are expected to be affected by HIV/AIDS by 2010. If children up to 18 years are considered (children up to 15 years old are traditionally considered orphans), 50 million children will be affected by HIV/AIDS by 2010. Globally, at least 90% of those orphaned through HIV/AIDS live in sub-Saharan Africa.23 Children orphaned by HIV/AIDS often have less access to education. Research has shown that children orphaned by HIV/AIDS are more likely to be out of school 20 P. Fallon and Z. Tzannatos, Child Labor: Issues and directions for the World Bank. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998, p.2. 21 ILO, A Future Without Child Labor: Global Report under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. Geneva: International Labor Conference 90th Session 2002, p.22. 22 Ibid, p.25. 23 All statistics taken from Bill Rau, Intersecting Risks: HIV/AIDS and Child Labor. Geneva: ILO, June 2002, p. 4. CRS-8 than those orphaned for other reasons.24 Once a parent becomes infected with HIV the child is often withdrawn from school either to care for the ill parent(s) and siblings, or to find work to substitute for the income of the sick or deceased parent. Even if they remain in school, children raised in households with a parent living with HIV/AIDS usually only attend school sporadically. Once the parent(s) die(s) the child may find refuge in the streets or with an extended family member. The extended family network has traditionally been very strong in many developing countries. However, HIV/AIDS is undermining it. Older family members, already struggling to make a living, rarely have enough money to sufficiently care for additional children. These children are less likely to receive an education, are more likely to be malnourished, and are more easily exploited. Extended families are turning away children at rising rates, resulting in a significant increase in "street children" and working children. Children on the street in need of money, food, shelter and guidance are more likely to be drawn into causal sexual relationships or to be exploited for commercial sexual practices. Consequently, these children become more likely to contract HIV/AIDS themselves. The United Nations estimates that up to 48% of street children have been sexually abused in return for food and shelter.25 As working adults continue to die at rapid rates, the demand for child labor increases. In areas severely affected by HIV/AIDS, employers have begun to seek out children to fill in the labor gaps. In Zimbabwe, the HIV induced loss of adult labor on commercial agricultural estates has increased the demand for child labor both in fields and in households. In South Africa, children are expected to work on the estate if they live with their parents on the compound.26 Child Labor and Education A lack of access to education is yet another contributor to the persistence of child labor. Education is critical in both preventing child labor and in removing children from hazardous forms of work. An estimated 113 million children do not have access to primary education around the world.27 Some do not have access to education because the school fees, uniforms and other related expenses are out of reach. Others either do not have access to a school or do not find the education offered to be relevant to their needs. While child labor may supplement the household income in the short-term, in the long-term it can plunge the family deeper into poverty as it both increases the likelihood that the child will receive meager wages for his/her lifetime and suppresses adult wages. 24 Ibid, p.6. 25 Bill Rau, Intersecting Risks: HIV/AIDS and Child Labor. Geneva: ILO, June 2002, p.22. 26 Ibid, p.19. 27 USDOL, Advancing the Campaign Against Child Labor: Efforts at the Country Level. Washington, D.C.: USDOL, 2002, i. CRS-9 Efforts to Eliminate International Child Labor There are a number of other international organizations and international non- governmental organizations (NGOs) that address child labor, but this report focuses on the international efforts of the International Labor Organization.28 Since 1919 the International Labor Organization (ILO) has adopted some 20 Conventions and Recommendations that seek to set minimum labor standards for children.29 The Conventions are treaties and are binding on countries that have ratified them. The ILO offers countries technical assistance in implementing and ratifying Convention 138: Minimum Age for Employment, and Convention 182: Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor30 through the Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-Up. Established in 1998, the Declaration commits all ILO members to respect, promote and realize workers' basic rights, even if they have not ratified the corresponding Conventions.31 Workers' basic rights are: ! the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation; ! the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labor ! freedom of association; and ! the abolition of child labor.32 The Declaration and its Follow-Up incorporate no direct enforcement powers. However, the ILO monitors and reports on international child labor practices. The programs established under the Declaration rely on two things to eliminate international child labor: annual reports from participating countries and technical assistance programs. All states participating in the Declaration program are required to submit an annual report that illustrates their progress towards respecting, promoting and realizing the standards in the corresponding Conventions that they have not ratified.33 The Declaration and its Follow-Up also commits the ILO to provide technical assistance to member states that will assist them in implementing the Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. 28 Additional international organizations include UNICEF, and NGOs include the Save the Children. 29 Relevant Child Labor Conventions include: Convention 5: Minimum Age for Industrial Sector (Revised), 1919; Convention 59: Minimum Age (Industry) Convention (Revised), 1937; Convention 105: Abolition of Forced Labor, 1957; Convention 123: Minimum Age for Underground Work, 1965; Convention 138: Minimum Age for Employment, 1973; and Convention 182: Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor, 1999. 30 As of December 18, 2002, 120 countries have ratified Convention 138, excluding the U.S., and 132 countries ratified Convention 182, including the United States. 31 ILO website [http://www.ilo.int/public/english/standards/decl/declaration/faq/tindex.htm], August 27, 2002. 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid. CRS-10 International Initiatives The ILO has a number of technical assistance programs that address child labor. The first is the International Program to Eliminate Child Labor (IPEC), which became operational in 1992. IPEC has mobilized more resources than any other Declaration technical assistance program..34 Eighty-two countries now participate in the IPEC program, up from the initial six, and the program has attracted 27 donor countries, up from the original one (Germany).35 IPEC accounted for 12.8% of the total ILO extra-budgetary technical cooperation expenditure in 1998-1999. By 2000- 01, 27.5% of total ILO extra-budgetary technical cooperation expenditure came from IPEC.36 This initiative targets children engaged in hazardous work and the worst forms of child labor. To enhance sustainability and maximize impact, IPEC works with participating governments to remove children from hazardous work and offers children and their families education, income and employment alternatives. The program also seeks to prevent other children from becoming child laborers.37 The training component of IPEC Program helps member states to: ! determine the nature and extent of the child labor problem; ! devise national policies and protective legislation; ! establish mechanisms to provide in-country ownership and operation of national programs; ! create awareness about child labor in communities and workplaces; and ! enhance workplace monitoring and social protection programs.38 A second technical assistance initiative is the Time Bound Programs (TBP). The TBP seeks to assist member States to implement Convention 182 and eradicate the worst forms of child labor within five to ten years. The ILO expects TBPs to have a significant impact on sustainable development largely because its methodology incorporates all members of society, and because it requires that states demonstrate commitment to eradicating the worst forms of child labor. Recognizing the link between poverty and child labor, TBPs seek to incorporate strategies for the abolition of the worst forms of child labor into participating countries' national Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers and national labor market policies and processes.39 A third technical assistance program, the Statistical Information and Monitoring Program on Child Labor (SIMPOC), helps states identify the incidence, scope and 34 ILO, A Future Without Child Labor: Global Report under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on the Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. Geneva: International Labor Conference 90th Session 2002, p.3. 35 ILO, IPEC Action Against Child Labor: Highlights 2002. Geneva: October 2002, p.5. 36 ILO, IPEC Action Against Child Labor 2000-2001: Progress and Future Priorities. Geneva: January 2002, p.25. 37 Ibid, p.9. 38 Ibid, p.10. 39 Ibid, p.24 and p.34. CRS-11 causes of child labor. Data on the scope and magnitude of child labor practices is scarce and is often not collected. Furthermore, the data that is available, including ILO data, has some margin of error.40 SIMPOC provides technical and financial support to countries to carry out child labor surveys, sets up national data banks and disseminates information.41 U.S. Government Child Labor Initiatives While child labor has proven extremely difficult to eliminate, the United States has consistently strengthened its efforts to combat child labor. It has increased the number of U.S. agencies with mandates to fight the phenomenon, augmented its allocations to anti-child labor efforts, and attached child labor criteria to its international agreements and foreign assistance programs. In addition to its increasingly important role in developing programs that counter the spread of child labor, the United States has enhanced its role in the global fight against child labor through legislation and international agreements. One such international agreement is Convention 182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. As of 2002, one hundred twenty-nine countries have ratified Convention 182, due to rapid Senate action the United States was the third.42 The United States is also committed to the 1990 World Declaration Education for All Initiative. This initiative seeks to ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, have access to and are able to complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality.43 By virtue of its goal of global education for all, this initiative is seen as a tool to fight child labor. A number of U.S. agencies have a mandate to address international child labor. Below is a brief description of some activities that the U.S. Department of Labor, the U.S. Department of Treasury, the U.S. Agency for International Development, and the U.S. Department of State implement to address child labor. The U.S. Department of Labor The U.S. Department of Labor (USDOL) is the lead U.S. agency with the task of implementing projects that counter child labor worldwide. The International Child Labor Program (ICLP) combats international child labor as part of the Bureau of International Affairs (ILAB) of USDOL. ILAB seeks to improve working conditions 40 This is discussed further in Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. 41 ILO, A Future Without Child Labor: Global Report under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. Geneva: International Labor Conference 90th Session 2002, p.62. 42 ILO website, [http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/ipec/index.htm], December 3, 2002. 43 USDOL, Advancing the Campaign Against Child Labor: Efforts at the Country Level. Washington, D.C.: USDOL, 2002, v. CRS-12 around the globe. The United States is the single largest contributor to the IPEC Program,44 contributing over $157 million to the ILO-IPEC between 1995 and 2002. The U.S. Department of Labor's International Child Labor Program has grown considerably since its inception in 1993. Initially, the ICLP investigated and reported on international incidences of child labor.45 The ICLP continues to investigate and report on global incidences of child labor, implements technical assistance initiatives, undertakes awareness raising activities, and maintains a list of products, which it believes may have been made with forced or indentured child labor.46 Technical Assistance The U.S. Department of Labor (USDOL) International Child Labor Program (ICLP) funds a number of technical assistance programs. The first, the ILO-IPEC Program, receives the largest portion of the technical assistance budget. In FY2002, USDOL contributed $45 million to the ILO-IPEC Program. U.S. contributions support ILO-International Program to Eliminate Child Labor (IPEC), -Time Bound Programs (TBPs), and -Statistical Information and Monitoring Program on Child Labor (SIMPOC) activities in over 25 countries. The projects address key issues local to each country, including child labor in Indonesia's footwear industry, trafficking in West and Central Africa, and eliminating child labor in Nicaragua's trash dumps. A complete list of USDOL technical assistance projects can be found in the appendix. The second technical assistance program, the Education Initiative (EI), is a relatively new one. Launched in 2001, the EI seeks to increase access to basic education, and to enhance the sustainability47 of ongoing international and national child labor programs.48 The USDOL allocated $37 million to the EI in FY2002.The Education Initiative has four goals: ! to raise awareness of the importance of education for all children and mobilize a wide array of actors to improve and expand education infrastructures; ! to strengthen national institutions and policies on education and child labor; 44 ILO, IPEC Action Against Child Labor 200-2001: Progress and Future Priorities. Geneva: January 2002, p.11. 45 USDOL website, [http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/aboutcl.htm], September 3, 2002. 46 USDOL website, [http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/programs/iclp/about_iclp.htm], September 4, 2002. 47 Interview with staff at USDOL, July 23, 2002. 48 USDOL website, [http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/programs/iclp/about_iclp.htm], September 4, 2002.. CRS-13 ! to develop formal and transitional education systems that encourage working children and those at risk of working to attend school; and ! to ensure the long-term sustainability of these efforts.49 The USDOL-ICLP also awards grants to raise awareness within the United States about the global problem of child labor. The funds have been used to produce reports on the nature and scope of child labor in India, Brazil, Mexico, and Kenya; to develop a photographic library of child labor from around the world; to support the public education efforts of the Child Labor Coalition (CLC);50 and to offer a child labor policy advocacy course to 50 graduate students.51 In addition to its technical assistance efforts the USDOL-ICLP, in conjunction with the Department of Treasury and the Department of State, maintains a list of products believed to be produced with forced or indentured child labor.52 The list is updated and the Department of Treasury, U.S. Customs Service uses this list to seize such goods and prevent them from entering the United States. Since June 12, 1999, under Executive Order No. 13126, the USDOL-ICLP has co-maintained this list and is currently reviewing information regarding the use of forced or indentured child labor in the cocoa industry in Cote d'Ivoire and the production of firecrackers in China.53 U.S. Department of Treasury Section 307 of the Tariff Act of 1930 (P.L. 71-361) prohibits the importation of merchandise produced in whole or in part with prison labor, forced labor, or indentured labor under penal sanction. It was amended in 2000 to specify that the prohibition includes forced or indentured child labor (P.L. 106-200).54 The Department of Treasury, U.S. Customs Service, responsible for enforcing Section 307 and related regulations, has established a Forced Child Labor Command Center in the Fraud Investigations Branch of the Office of Investigations. The Command Center has a number of functions, including: ! providing a clearinghouse for information and investigative leads; ! creating strategies to identify illegal merchandise before it arrives in the U.S.; 49 USDOL website, [www.dol.gov/ILAB/grants/education/educationinitiative.htm], July 31, 2002. 50 The International Child Labor Coalition is an NGO that educates the public about child labor. 51 USDOL website, [http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/programs/tech_assist/awareness/main.htm], September 4, 2002. 52 USDOL website, [http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/eo.htm], July 15, 2002. 53 USDOL website, [http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/eo.htm], July 15, 2002. 54 U.S. Customs, Forced Child Labor Advisory. Washington, D.C.: December 2000, p.4. CRS-14 ! operating as a liaison for Customs investigative filed office; and ! improving enforcement coordination and information.55 The U.S. Customs Outreach Program enhances its enforcement efforts. The Outreach Program educates manufacturers, U.S. importers and the public about forced child labor. It also informs its audience about the role of Customs in fighting forced or indentured child labor, offers advice on identifying goods possibly produced with indentured or forced child labor, and explains U.S. child labor law. The U.S. Customs Service also fights forced and indentured child labor abroad through its attachés. Attachés, based in more than 20 countries, are responsible for investigating allegations of forced or indentured child labor, informing foreign government counterparts, NGOs and private businesses on Customs' role in fighting forced and indentured child labor, and conducting seminars and conferences on forced and indentured child labor. Congress has appropriated over $14 million to the U.S. Customs forced child labor program since FY2000. U.S. Agency for International Development The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) programs to limit international child labor are implemented largely through three initiatives: the Sustainable Tree Crops Program (STCP), the Education to Combat Abusive Child Labor (ECACL) Activity, and anti-trafficking programs. The Sustainable Tree Crops Program is a public-private partnership that seeks to raise the income and quality of life in cocoa-, coffee- and cashew-producing communities. Initially, the project focused its efforts on economically and environmentally improving the standards of rural households. Recently, the program has evolved to address abusive child labor practices by promoting and monitoring acceptable forms of labor. Recognizing that abusive forms of child labor are often a symptom of poverty, USAID hopes that by combining strategies to increase access to environmentally friendly technology to raise profitability, productivity and efficiency of smallholder tree crops systems, farmers will rely less on child labor.56 In an effort to investigate allegations of bonded child labor and child trafficking in harvesting some cocoa beans in West Africa, USAID in conjunction with the U.S. Department of Labor, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association (CMA) and the ILO conducted a survey in Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, and Nigeria. As a result of the survey findings, three congressional members57, the Government of Cote d'Ivoire, the ILO-IPEC, the CMA, other NGOs, and a host of other chocolate 55 U.S. Customs website, [http://www.customs.gov/enforcem/forc.htm], September 4, 2002. 56 Interview with USAID staff on September 9, 2002. 57 Senator Tom Harkin, Senator Herbert Kohl, and Congressman Eliot Engel. CRS-15 employers and workers unions58 were involved in the formation of a coalition to develop an action plan to address abusive child labor in West African cocoa production.59 Ultimately, the coalition agreed to a program for growing and processing cocoa beans and their derivative products in a manner that complies with ILO Convention 182.60 The Sustainable Tree Crops Program (STCP), the ILO, Governments of West Africa and the CMA are developing a pilot phase of activity that would complement existing STCP activities. Pilot projects were scheduled to begin by November 30, 2002.61 USAID seeks to integrate child labor activities into all of its socio-economic mission-level development programs through the Education to Combat Abusive Child Labor (ECACL) Activity. The ECACL assesses the extent of in-country child labor problems; and conducts policy analyses, evaluations, and feasibility studies, as well as applied research. Through this activity ECACL explores various strategies to eliminate abusive and hazardous child labor, such as alternative forms of education, scholarships, payments and other incentives. The research has already revealed that many children engaged in hazardous forms of child labor and their families do not see the merit in attending school; and many feel that the liberal arts form of education usually found in school is not relevant to their lifestyle and will not serve to improve their financial standing. The ECACL has already produced a number of publications, a child labor database, child labor country briefs, and reports that serve as planning guides for assisting host countries and USAID missions in the planning and implementation of on-the-ground activities. The ECACL will also report on the results of its pilot projects that seek to prevent children from entering hazardous or exploitative forms of work worldwide.62 Finally, USAID conducts a range of anti-trafficking activities that include assisting children in Africa, cooperating with NGOs in Central Asia to combat trafficking and change legislation, and monitoring cross-border trafficking for sexual exploitation in Latin America and the Caribbean. Many of these activities are conducted in conjunction with the U.S. Department of State and U.S. Embassies.63 58 Other signatories, include: the World Cocoa Foundation, the International Union of Food, Agricultural, Hotel, Restaurant, Catering, Tobacco and Allied Workers' Associations (IUF), the Child Labor Coalition, Free The Slaves, and the National Consumers League 59 Child Labor Coalition website, Nothing Sweet: Child Slave Labor in Ivory Coast Cocoa Fields. [http://www.stopchildlabor.org/internationalchildlabor/timeline.htm], July 17, 2002. 60 Ibid, ibid. 61 USAID Africa/DP Bureau, September 9, 2002. 62 Education to Combat Abusive Child Labor website, [http://www.beps.net/childlabor.htm], September 10, 2002. 63 USAID, Trafficking in Persons: USAID's Response. Washington, D.C., September 2001, p.3. CRS-16 U.S. Department of State The U.S. Department of State is involved in child labor initiatives, which it coordinates with the ILO, USDOL, and USAID. Through its Office of International Labor Affairs it promotes the ILO core labor standards, which include the abolition of child labor; plays a major role in U.S. Government participation in the ILO; pursues the inclusion of worker rights on the agenda of international institutions, including the World Trade Organization (WTO), the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund; and monitors countries' compliance with worker rights' provisions in U.S. laws. P.L. 106-386 called for the establishment of an Interagency Task Force to Monitor and Combat Trafficking, chaired by the Secretary of State. It also authorizes the U.S. Department of State to establish an Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking to assist the task force. In addition, the Department of State is required to issue a report each year on trafficking, including an assessment of what governments are doing to combat trafficking. Trafficking is discussed comprehensively in CRS Report RL30545, Trafficking in Women and Children: The U.S. and International Response. Congressional Action Congressional support for the abolition of child labor, particularly the worst forms of child labor, is very strong. Congress has acted to fund programs to combat child labor, expand the United States' role in the global fight against child labor, and include clauses that require action on eliminating child labor in trade agreements. In 1993, Congress directed the U.S. Department of Labor (USDOL) International Child Labor Program (ICLP) to investigate and report on child labor around the world. Since then, Congress has continued to fund the USDOL-ICLP research and reporting efforts. It has expanded the ICLP's mandate to include administering grants to organizations engaged in efforts to eliminate child labor and to improve access to quality basic education; and raising public awareness and understanding of child labor issues.64 Appropriations for the ICLP have grown to $82 million in FY 2002. Congress has also greatly enhanced U.S. efforts to fight child labor by adding child labor responsibilities to a host of U.S. agencies including, USAID, U.S. Department of State, and U.S. Customs Service. Congress has also advanced the U.S. role in countering the worst forms of child labor through legislation, such as Section 634 of P.L. 105-61, which restricts the importation of goods produced by forced or indentured child labor. Congress also added child labor stipulations to foreign aid legislation through the Export-Import Bank Reauthorization Act of 1997 (P.L. 105-121). This bill integrates child labor into the list of criteria for denying credit by the Export-Import Bank. Another bill targeting child labor abuses is the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386). The legislation provides punishment for traffickers, as well 64 USDOL website, [http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/programs/main.htm], September 12, 2002. CRS-17 as assistance and protection to trafficking victims, with a special emphasis on women and children, both in the U.S. and abroad.65 Recognizing that international child labor could serve as an artificial barrier to trade, as countries that do not rely on child labor in export production could have difficulty competing against countries that do, Congress has used international trade agreements to fight child labor. The Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) is a program that extends duty-free entry to a wide range of products from more than 140 countries and territories. The Trade and Development Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-200) expanded the GSP eligibility criteria to include the Worst Forms of Child Labor. The Act prohibits any country from GSP consideration if "[s]uch country has not implemented its commitments to eliminate the worst forms of child labor."66 The Trade Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-210) amended the Andean Trade Preference Act (ATPA) to add child labor criteria.67 The North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC), the labor supplement to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), also has a child labor component. The agreement seeks to promote fundamental labor standards, including those addressing child labor, compliance with labor laws, and the enforcement of those laws in each country. The Office of the U.S. Trade Representative states that the NAALC has enhanced transparency and public debate on labor law and enforcement issues more than any previous bilateral or trilateral cooperative agreement.68 Issues and Questions for Congress Although Congress has consistently supported American efforts to eliminate child labor world-wide, proponents of these efforts say that a number of issues continue to complicate these initiatives, including: ineffective enforcement mechanisms, sparse monitoring systems, and insufficient funding for programs that alleviate poverty, decrease incidences of HIV/AIDS, and increase access to relevant education. Some argue that until international enforcement mechanisms are established, global monitoring systems are enhanced and funding for programs that combat poverty, HIV/AIDS and illiteracy are boosted, child labor will continue to flourish. Lack of Enforcement Mechanisms There are a number of international, national and local programs that seek to eliminate international child labor. Some argue that a lack of enforcement mechanisms diminishes the impact of these programs.69 Ratification of ILO 65 Ibid, ibid. 66 P.L. 106-200. 67 H.R. 3009. 68 USTR website, Chapter 3: Worker Rights: Cooperation and Labor Law Enforcement. [http://www.ustr.gov/pdf/chapter3.pdf], September 12, 2002. 69 The lack of ILO enforcement capabilities has generated much discussion. Part of that (continued...) CRS-18 Conventions and participation in the ILO international child labor programs are voluntary. Some maintain that the ILO should have some form of enforcement capacity or penalty mechanisms in place to strengthen the child labor Conventions. These arguments have raised a number of questions, including whether the ILO should add enforcement mechanisms to its charter, and the impact that enforcement mechanisms could have on ILO membership (there are 186 ILO member states). Some have also suggested that the ILO should allow countries to file grievances against countries that consistently use child labor. Linking Child Labor to International Trade and Foreign Aid Some argue that linking child labor to international trade strengthens efforts to eliminate its use. Advocates of this practice argue that countries that use child labor create unemployment in developed countries as multinational companies move their plants to countries with lower labor costs. This, they argue, constitutes "social dumping", a term that implies that developing countries without adequate labor standards distort trade and investment flows and participate in unfair competition.70 Additionally, supporters of using trade as a tool to discourage the use of child labor maintain that this linkage will help developing countries to modernize, because children will be forced to attend school, and in the long run a more educated workforce will boost the country's productive potential. Others oppose marrying child labor and international trade for a number of reasons. First, they argue that the United States unjustly requires states to ratify or comply with international child labor conventions, which it has not ratified.71 Second, opponents argue that heightened trade barriers will worsen the plight of workers and more than likely increase reliance on child labor, as growth is halted and families struggle to contend with increased poverty. Finally, since most child labor occurs on family farms and in the informal sector, trade initiatives will have only minimal impact on child laborers, opponents argue. If the United States would reduce its trade barriers (such as tariffs on foreign textiles and agriculture), some argue, developing countries would be able to grow, fight poverty, and minimize their reliance on child laborers.72 This issue has spurred debates on a number of issues, including whether the United States should continue to use international trade forums to contribute to the abolition of international child labor. Another issue some have 69 (...continued) debate has been captured in Congressional hearings and briefings, including: Federal News Service (FNS), USIA Foreign Press Center Briefing, June 23, 1999, and FNS, Special White House Briefing with Secretary of Labor Alexis Herman and National Economic Council Director Gene Sperling, December 2, 1999. 70 Hasnat, Baban, "International Trade and Child Labor." Journal of Economic Issues, v29, n2, June 1995, p.419. 71 The United States has not ratified a number of ILO Conventions, because it argues that it infringes on national and state sovereignty. Furthermore, it argues that in practice the United States already complies with the Conventions. 72 Lukas, Aaron, "WTO Report Card III: Globalization and Developing Countries." CATO Institute: CATO Trade Briefing Paper No. 10, June 20, 2000, p.16. CRS-19 raised is whether U.S. tariffs and subsidies indirectly contribute to international child labor. Opponents of the use of U.S. tariffs and subsidies have argued that the United States might be able to offer trade-friendly options to eliminate child labor, such as halting direct foreign aid payments to governments that use child labor. Lack of Global Monitoring Systems Both the ILO and the United States train labor monitors in foreign countries. However, most labor monitoring activities are undertaken in the formal sector. As noted early in this report, most forms of international child labor occur in the informal sector, such as family farms and home businesses. Countries that already struggle with insufficient numbers of labor monitors who are often ill-trained and ill- equipped can not effectively monitor the informal sector. Advocates of the increased use of labor monitors have debated whether the United States should encourage the ILO to train labor monitors to inspect labor practices in the informal sector. Others have suggested that the ILO could offer governments additional technical assistance to hire more labor monitors. Some argue that alternative methods of supporting labor monitors, such as encouraging the private sector or non-governmental organizations to offer support to in-country labor monitors or the ILO in monitoring and documenting child labor abuses. Child Labor as a Development Issue Some have maintained that funding for poverty alleviation, HIV/AIDS, basic education, and agriculture is insufficient. These observers argue that a comprehensive anti-child labor agenda should include increased funding for poverty reduction programs, education initiatives and other development programs. They maintain that if child labor were approached from a human rights perspective then the myriad of development issues would be addressed in conjunction with child labor programs.73 Those who see child labor as a development issue argue that countries, including the United States, should increase funding to other development programs, such as HIV/AIDS, basic education and agriculture. Others express concern that if the United States were to increase its funding to anti-poverty initiatives it might have to cut funding for other programs. At the same time, some argue that the United States needs to change the way it offers foreign aid overall. 73 See UNICEF, Beyond Child Labor, Affirming Rights. New York: UNICEF, March 2001. CRS-20 Appendix Definitions of Child Labor The ILO divides child labor into three categories: ! labor performed by a child who is under the minimum age; ! children engaged in hazardous work; and ! children in the unconditional worst forms of child labor Labor that is performed by a child under the minimum age is unacceptable because this work is likely to impede on a child's education and full development74, and thus the ILO considers it to be the first form of child labor to be immediately abolished. The ILO estimates that in 2000 approximately 246 million children between 5 and 17 years old were engaged in child labor that requires elimination.75 Children in hazardous work is defined as children participating in any activity or occupation which, by its nature or type has, or leads to, adverse effects on the child's safety, health (physical or mental), and moral development. Hazards could be as a result of excessive workloads, physical conditions of work, and/or work intensity (duration or hours of work even if the activity is deemed non-hazardous or safe).76 The ILO estimates that in 2000 more than two-thirds of those in child labor were engaged in hazardous work. An estimated 171 million children between ages 5 and 17 were estimated to work in hazardous conditions in 2000.77 The unconditional worst forms of child labor includes: ! all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labor, including forced or compulsory use of children in armed conflict; ! the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography, or for pornographic performances; and ! the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, particularly in the production and trafficking of drugs.78 74 ILO, A Future Without Child Labor: Global Report under the Follow-Up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. Geneva: ILO, International Labor Conference 90th Session 2002, p.9. 75 ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. Geneva: ILO Labor Office, April 2002, p.23. 76 Ibid, p.33. 77 Ibid, p.10. 78 USDOL website, [http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/aboutcl.htm], June 5, 2002. CRS-21 Table 3. USDOL-Funded Child Labor Technical Assistance Projects, FY1995-FY2001 FY PROJECT COUNTRY PROJECT AMOUNT GRANTEE FUNDED TERM ASIA TOTAL FUNDING: US$ 45.8 MILLION Bangladesh Phase 1: Elimination of Child Labor in Bangladesh Garment $867,273 1995 completed ILO/IPEC Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA) Garment Factories and the Placement of Children in School Programs Phase 2: Continuation of Monitoring and Verification Project in $840,779 1996; 1997 completed ILO/IPEC BGMEA Factories in Bangladesh Phase 3: Continuing the Child Labor Monitoring and Education $375,572 2001 5/01 ­ 4/02 ILO/IPEC Components (BGMEA), and Prepare for the Integration into a Broader Project in the Garment Export Industry in Bangladesh Prevention and Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor in $6,000,600 2000 9/00 ­ 8/03 ILO/IPEC Selected Formal and Informal Sectors Child Labor Statistical Survey (SIMPOC) Cambodia Combating Child Labor in Hazardous Work in Salt Production, $999,310 2001 9/01 ­ 2/04 ILO/IPEC Rubber Plantations and Fish/shrimp Processing Centers in Cambodia India Preventing and Eliminating Child Labor in 10 Identified $14,000,000 2001 9/01 ­ 12/04 ILO/IPEC Hazardous Sectors Mongolia National Program on the Prevention and Elimination of Child $569,633 1999 10/99 ­ 7/02 ILO/IPEC Labor in Mongolia Nepal Elimination of Trafficking and Commercial Sexual Exploitation $192,809 1996 completed ILO/IPEC of Girls Sustainable Elimination of Bonded Labor in Nepal (Joint Project $1,953,052 2000 12/00 ­ 11/03 ILO/IPEC with Declaration Program) Supporting the Timebound Program on the Elimination of the $5,500,000 2001 9/01 ­ 8/04 ILO/IPEC Worst Forms of Child Labor in Nepal CRS-22 FY PROJECT COUNTRY PROJECT AMOUNT GRANTEE FUNDED TERM Brighter Futures Program: Combating Child in Nepal through $4,000,000 2001 2/02 ­ 2/06 World Education Education Pakistan Phase 1: Project to Phase Children Out of the Soccer Ball $755,744 1997 (completed) ILO/IPEC Industry, Provide Educational Opportunities, and Conduct Internal and External Monitoring in Sialkot Phase 2: Elimination of Child Labor in the Soccer Ball Industry in $1,109,831 2000 8/00 ­ 7/02 ILO/IPEC Sialkot Project to Phase Children out of the Carpet Sector, Place Them in $2,055,146 1998, 1999 4/99 ­ 4/03 ILO/IPEC Schools, and Establish Compliance Monitoring System Philippines Statistical Program for Advocacy on the Elimination of Child $268,465 1995 (completed) ILO/IPEC Labor and the Protection of Children in the Philippines - Child Labor Statistical Survey (SIMPOC) SIMPOC- Child Labor Statistical Survey $237,476 2001 7/01 ­ 10/02 ILO/IPEC Timebound Preparatory Work $66,506 2001 6/01 - 7/02 ILO/IPEC Thailand Phase 1: Program to Prevent Child Labor and Forced Child $484,923 1995 completed ILO/IPEC Prostitution Phase 2: Continuation of the Program to Prevent Child Labor and $261,070 1996 completed ILO/IPEC Forced Child Prostitution Vietnam National Program on the Prevention and Elimination of Child $499,383 2001 1/01 ­ 6/04 ILO/IPEC Labor East and South East ILO/Japan/U.S. Asian Regional Tripartite Workshop on Core $111,870 1999 completed ILO/IPEC Asia Labor Standards, Including Child Labor South Asia Elimination of Trafficking of Children in South Asia $1,789,426 1999 2/00 ­ 9/02 ILO/IPEC 1. Bangladesh 2. Nepal 3. Sri Lanka South East Asia Program to Combat Child Labor in the Footwear Industry in $1,961,657 1999 10/99 ­ 12/02 ILO/IPEC 1. Indonesia Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand CRS-23 FY PROJECT COUNTRY PROJECT AMOUNT GRANTEE FUNDED TERM 2. Philippines 3. Thailand South East Asia Program to Combat Child Labor in the Fishing Industry in $983,347 1999, 2000 10/99 ­ 12/02 ILO/IPEC 1. Indonesia Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand 2. Philippines AFRICA TOTAL FUNDING: US$ 24.8 MILLION Ghana National Program on the Prevention and Elimination of Child $650,703 1999 8/99 ­ 6/02 ILO/IPEC Labor in Ghana SIMPOC - Child Labor Statistical Survey $397,617 1999 9/00 ­ 8/02 ILO/IPEC Malawi SIMPOC - Child Labor Statistical Survey $387,759 2001 8/01 ­ 11/02 ILO/IPEC Nigeria National Program on the Prevention and Elimination of Child $718,928 1999 1/00 ­ 6/02 ILO/IPEC Labor in Nigeria SIMPOC - Child Labor Statistical Survey $282,613 1999 7/99 ­ 8/02 ILO/IPEC South Africa Reporting on the State of the Nation's Working Children: $687,697 1998, 1999 11/98 ­ 6/02 ILO/IPEC Statistical Program for Advocacy on the Elimination of Child Labor and the Protection of Working Children in the Republic of South Africa National Program to Eliminate Child Labor in South Africa $121,929 2000 7/00 ­ 4/01 ILO/IPEC Tanzania Supporting the Timebound Program on the Elimination of the $5,406,168 2001 9/01 ­ 5/05 ILO/IPEC Worst Forms of Child Labor in Tanzania Tanzania Child Laborers Program $4,000,000 2001 2/02 ­ 2/06 Education Development Center, Inc. Uganda National Program to Eliminate Child Labor in Uganda $1,196,262 1999 5/99 ­ 12/01 ILO/IPEC SIMPOC - Child Labor Statistical Survey $295,608 1999 3/00 ­ 2/03 ILO/IPEC CRS-24 FY PROJECT COUNTRY PROJECT AMOUNT GRANTEE FUNDED TERM Zambia National Program on the Prevention and Elimination of Child $630,512 1999 9/99 ­ 8/01 ILO/IPEC Labor in Zambia SIMPOC - Child Labor Statistical Survey $289,775 1999 9/99 ­ 6/02 ILO/IPEC West and Central Phase 1: Combating Trafficking in Children for Labor $225,525 1999 (completed) ILO/IPEC Africa Exploitation in West and Central Africa 1. Benin 2. Burkina Faso 3. Cameroon 4. Gabon 5. Ghana Phase 2: Combating Trafficking in Children for Labor $4,279,154 2001 7/01 ­ 11/04 ILO/IPEC 6. Ivory Coast Exploitation in West and Central Africa 7. Mali 8. Nigeria 9. Togo Central Africa Phase 1: Regional Program on the Prevention and Reintegration $312,812 2001 9/01 ­ 10/02 ILO/IPEC 1. Burundi of Children Involved in Armed Conflicts in Central Africa 2. Republic of Congo (Identification of a Strategy for Concerted Action) 3. DR of Congo 4. Rwanda East Africa Prevention, Withdrawal and Rehabilitation of Children Engaged $4,743,658 2000 11/00­11/03 ILO/IPEC 1. Kenya in Hazardous Work in the Commercial Agriculture Sector in 2. Malawi Africa 3. Uganda 4. Tanzania 5. Zambia Africa Technical workshop on Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture $170,381 1995 (completed) ILO/IPEC in Africa CRS-25 FY PROJECT COUNTRY PROJECT AMOUNT GRANTEE FUNDED TERM CENTRAL AMERICA, SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARRIBEAN TOTAL FUNDING: US$ 41 MILLION Brazil Combating Child Labor in the Shoe Industry of Vale dos Sinos, $308,958 1995 (completed) ILO/IPEC Brazil SIMPOC ­ Child Labor Statistical Survey $1,663,599 1999 9/99 ­ 5/03 ILO/IPEC Colombia Prevention and Elimination of Child Labor in Small-Scale $800,477 2001 9/01 ­ 12/03 ILO/IPEC Traditional Mining in Colombia Dominican Republic Prevention and Elimination of Child Labor in Tomato Production $865,412 2000 8/00 ­ 9/02 ILO/IPEC Preparatory Activities for the Timebound Program on the $1,306,243 2001 9/01 ­ 11/04 ILO/IPEC Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor in the Dominican Republic El Salvador Combating Child Labor in the Fireworks Industry $1,008,327 1999 4/00 ­ 2/04 ILO/IPEC Supporting the Timebound Program on the Elimination of the $4,034,351 2001 1/02 ­ 12/05 ILO/IPEC Worst Forms of Child Labor in El Salvador Combating Child Labor through Education in Timebound $4,000,000 2001 9/01 ­ 2/06 ILO/IPEC Programs - El Salvador Guatemala Combating Child Labor in the Fireworks Industry $1,235,853 1999 6/99 ­ 11/02 ILO/IPEC Elimination of Child Labor in the Broccoli Industry $872,762 2000 10/00 ­ 3/03 ILO/IPEC Phase 2: Progressive Eradication of Child Labor in Gravel $584,918 2001 9/01 ­ 11/04 ILO/IPEC Production in Retalhuleu, Guatemala Haiti National Program to Eliminate Child Labor and an Action $1,223,535 1998 1/99 ­ 12/02 ILO/IPEC Program to Combat Child Domestic Service Honduras Elimination of Child Labor in the Melon Industry $792,240 2000 10/00 ­ 3/03 ILO/IPEC Jamaica National Program for the Elimination and Prevention of Child $562,687 2001 10/01 ­ 9/03 ILO/IPEC Labor, including a Statistical Child Labor Survey Nicaragua Combating Child Labor in the Production of Basic Grains & $681,021 1999, 2000 4/00 ­ 9/02 ILO/IPEC Farming/Stockbreeding CRS-26 FY PROJECT COUNTRY PROJECT AMOUNT GRANTEE FUNDED TERM Elimination of Child Labor at La Chureca Garbage Dumps in $1,133,830 2000 10/00 ­ 6/03 ILO/IPEC Managua Central America Combating Child Labor in Central America and the Caribbean: $1,000,000 1997, 1998 (completed) ILO/IPEC 1. Costa Rica Multiple Countries and Activities 2. Dominican Republic 3. El Salvador 4. Guatemala 5. Nicaragua Central America SIMPOC - Child Labor Statistical Survey $2,210,173 1999 10/99 ­ 12/03 ILO/IPEC 1. Belize 2. Costa Rica 3. Dominican Republic 4. El Salvador 5. Guatemala 6. Honduras 7. Nicaragua 8. Panama Central America Regional Program to Eliminate Child Labor in the Coffee Sector $6,112,187 1999 9/99 ­ 3/03 ILO/IPEC 1. Costa Rica in Central America and the Dominican Republic 2. Dominican Republic 3. El Salvador 4. Guatemala 5. Honduras 6. Nicaragua Central America Combating Child Labor in Commercial Agriculture in Central $1,122,501 2000 4/00 ­ 3/03 ILO/IPEC 1. Dominican Republic America and the Dominican Republic -Management and 2. Guatemala Coordination 3. Honduras 4. Nicaragua South America Combating Child Labor in the Small-Scale Traditional Mines in $2,859,123 1999 5/00 ­ 7/02 ILO/IPEC 1. Bolivia South America 2. Ecuador CRS-27 FY PROJECT COUNTRY PROJECT AMOUNT GRANTEE FUNDED TERM 3. Peru South America Combating Child Labor in Domestic Service in South America $4,672,104 2000 1/01 ­ 3/04 ILO/IPEC 1. Brazil 2. Colombia 3. Paraguay 4. Peru South America Combating Child Prostitution in South America $1,995,464 2000 1/01 ­ 8/04 ILO/IPEC 1. Brazil 2. Paraguay EUROPE AND THE MIDDLE EAST TOTAL FUNDING: US $2.9 MILLION Romania National Program to Eliminate Child Labor in Romania $586,168 1999 9/99 ­ 12/02 ILO/IPEC SIMPOC - Child Labor Statistical Survey $288,647 1999 10/99 ­ 9/02 ILO/IPEC Ukraine National Program for the Prevention and Elimination of the Worst $627,979 2001 4/01 ­ 3/03 ILO/IPEC Forms of Child Labor in Ukraine Yemen National Program to eliminate child labor in Yemen $1,401,538 2000 10/00 ­ 11/03 ILO/IPEC CRS-28 FY PROJECT COUNTRY PROJECT AMOUNT GRANTEE FUNDED TERM WORLDWIDE TOTAL FUNDING: US $16 MILLION Worldwide Support Efforts of the Global March Against Child Labor at the $174,178 1996 (completed) ILO/IPEC Country Level and at its Culmination in Geneva. IPEC Global Campaign to Raise Awareness and Understanding $1,243,000 1999 3/00 - 12/02 ILO/IPEC about the Worst Forms of Child Labor Amendment to Global Campaign $175,150 2001 9/01 ­ 2/03 ILO/IPEC Publication and Presentation Materials for The Global Campaign $236,825 2000 (completed) ILO/IPEC Against Child Labor Conference: Washington, D.C. Design and support to the implementation of National Timebound $4,766,549 2001 1/01 ­ 9/03 ILO/IPEC Programs to Combat Child Labor Preparation and design of IPEC project documents $1,203,467 2001 2/01 ­ 7/02 ILO/IPEC SIMPOC - Child Labor Statistical Survey $1,489,395 2000 11/00 ­ 12/02 ILO/IPEC Project Implementation Technical Support $852,800 2000 10/00 - 8/02 ILO/IPEC Project Implementation Technical Support $297,015 2001 1/01 - 3/03 ILO/IPEC Improving data collection, analysis and dissemination of $5,403,225 2001 4/01 ­ 3/03 ILO/IPEC information and research on child labor, especially its worst forms - Child Labor Statistical Survey (SIMPOC) Asia and Pacific Economic Forum (APEC) Awareness Raising $240,305 2001 9/01 ­ 11/02 ILO/IPEC Campaign: Eliminating the Worst Forms of Child Labor and Providing Educational Opportunities Indicator Workshop $45,065 2001 completed ILO/IPEC Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs, Office of the International Child Labor Program. CRS-29 Table 4. Estimates of Economically Active Children in 2000 (in thousands) Number of Number at Age Group & Region Work Ratio (%) Children Work 5-9 Years Developed Economies 59,600 800 1.4 Transition Economies 27,700 900 3.1 Asia & the Pacific 335,400 40,000 12.3 Latin America & the 54,400 5,800 10.6 Caribbean Sub-Saharan Africa 88,800 20,900 23.6 Middle East & North Africa 44, 200 4,800 10.8 10-14 Years Developed Economies 59,400 1,700 2.8 Transition Economies 34,700 1,500 4.2 Asia & the Pacific 329,700 87,300 26.5 Latin America & the 53,700 11,600 21.5 Caribbean Sub-Saharan Africa 78,100 27,100 34.7 Middle East & North Africa 43,700 8,600 19.6 15-17 Years Developed Economies 36,700 11,500 31.3 Transition Economies 20,600 6,000 29.1 Asia & the Pacific 179,500 86,900 48.4 Latin America & the 31,200 10,300 35.0 Caribbean Sub-Saharan Africa 40,300 18,100 48.4 Middle East & North Africa 23,700 7,500 31.8 Source: ILO, Every Child Counts: New Global Estimates on Child Labor. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ For other versions of this document, see http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-RL31767