For other versions of this document, see http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-R40096 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ¢ ¢ ¢ Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress ¢ ¢ The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published its final revisions to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for particulate matter (particulates, or PM) on October 17, 2006. EPA's actions leading up to and following promulgation of the 2006 standard has been the subject of considerable Congressional oversight. EPA's implementation of the standard, beginning with the designation of those geographical areas not in compliance, will likewise be an area of concern and debate among many Members of Congress, states, and other stakeholders for some time. Promulgation of NAAQS sets in motion a process under which the states and the EPA identify areas that exceed the standard ("nonattainment areas") using multi-year air quality monitoring data and other criteria, requiring states to take steps to reduce pollutant concentrations in order to achieve it. As an initial phase of this process, in its August 2008 letters responding to recommendations received from States, EPA proposed area boundaries (typically defined by counties or portions of counties) for consideration as nonattainment for the 2006 NAAQS. EPA expects to finalize these nonattainment designations by the end of 2008, with an effective date of April 2009. Following formal designation, the states have three years to submit State Implementation Plans (SIPs), which identify specific regulations and emission control requirements that would bring an area into compliance. The 2006 NAAQS strengthened the pre-existing (1997) standard for "fine" particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter (PM2.5) by lowering the allowable daily concentration of PM2.5 in the air. The daily standard averaged over 24-hour periods is reduced from 65 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3) to 35 µg/m3. However, the annual PM2.5 standard, which addresses human health effects from chronic exposures to the pollutants, is unchanged from the 1997 standard of 15 µg/m3. The 2006 NAAQS did not substantially modify the daily standard for slightly larger, but still inhalable, particles less than or equal to 10 micrometers (PM10), retaining the 24-hour standard, but revoked the annual standard for PM10. The EPA is not requiring new nonattainment designations for PM10. The 2006 tightening of the PM2.5 standards is expected to affect areas currently designated nonattainment for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS; a number of areas would be designated nonattainment for the PM2.5 NAAQS for the first time. In its August 2008 letter to states, EPA identified 215 counties and portions of counties in 25 states for designation as nonattainment only for the revised 2006 24-hour PM2.5 standard. EPA's final designations for nonattainment of the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS included all or part of 205 counties in 20 states and the District of Columbia, the majority of which did not meet the annual PM2.5 standard. Overall, the total number of counties or portions of counties throughout the United States that will be designated "nonattainment," will increase as a result of the 2006 NAAQS. ¢ Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 EPA's 2006 Changes to the Particulates NAAQS............................................................................ 2 Designation of Geographical Nonattainment Areas ........................................................................ 3 NAAQS Designation Process.................................................................................................... 3 PM2.5 NAAQS Designations ..................................................................................................... 4 Comparing the 2006 and 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS Designations.................................................... 7 Demonstrating Attainment with the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS ............................................................ 10 State Implementation Plans (SIPs) .......................................................................................... 10 EPA NAAQS Implementation Rules .................................................................................11 National Regulations..........................................................................................................11 New Source Review.......................................................................................................... 12 Transportation Conformity ............................................................................................... 12 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 13 Figure 1. Counties in Nonattainment for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS--EPA's August 2008 Response to States' Recommendations ........................................................................................ 6 Figure 2. Currently Designated Nonattainment Areas 1997 PM2.5 Standards ................................. 7 Figure 3. Counties Projected to be Designated Nonattainment for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS.......... 9 Table 1. Counties Designated Nonattainment for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS and Projected to be Nonattainment for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS ........................................................................ 8 Table A-1. Schedule for Implementation of the 1997 and the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS ..................... 15 Table B-1. Recommended Nonattainment Areas for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS and Final Nonattainment Designations for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS ......................................................... 16 ¡ Appendix A. Comparative Timeline for Implementing the 1997 and 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS.......... 15 Appendix B. Comparison of Recommended Nonattainment Areas for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS and the Final Nonattainment Designations for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS .................... 16 Author Contact Information .......................................................................................................... 27 ¢ Under Sections 108-109 of the Clean Air Act (CAA), Congress mandated that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set national ambient (outdoor) air quality standards (or NAAQS) for pollutants whose emissions: (1) "may reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health or welfare;" and (2) "the presence of which in the ambient air results from numerous or diverse mobile or stationary sources." The statute further requires that EPA review the latest scientific studies and either reaffirm or modify previously established NAAQS every five years. The EPA has identified and promulgated NAAQS for six principal pollutants commonly referred to as "criteria pollutants": particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3, a key measure of smog), nitrogen dioxide (NO2, or, inclusively, nitrogen oxides,1 NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx, or, specifically, SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and lead (Pb). On October 17, 2006, the EPA published its revisions to the NAAQS for particulate matter (PM) to provide protection against potential health effects associated with short- and long-term exposure to particulates (including chronic respiratory disease and premature mortality).2 The 2006 particulates NAAQS primarily tightened the pre-existing (1997) standard for "fine" particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter (PM2.5).3 The standard for slightly larger, but still inhalable, particles less than or equal to 10 micrometers (PM10) established in 19874 was not similarly strengthened. Establishing NAAQS does not directly limit emissions; rather, it represents the EPA Administrator's formal judgment regarding the level of ambient pollution that will protect public health with an adequate margin of safety. Promulgation of NAAQS sets in motion a process under which the states and the EPA first identify geographic nonattainment areas, those areas failing to meet the NAAQS based on monitoring and analysis of relevant air quality data. States have three years from the date of EPA's final designations to submit State Implementation Plans (SIPs), which identify specific regulations and emission control requirements that will bring an area into compliance. EPA expects to finalize the nonattainment designations for the 2006 PM NAAQs by the end of 2008 with an effective date of April 2009.5 This report focuses primarily on the NAAQS implementation process for designating geographical nonattainment areas with respect to the tightening of the PM2.5 standards under the 2006 particulates NAAQS, including comparisons with the final designations under the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. The EPA is not requiring new nonattainment designations for PM10. Also included is a brief overview of states' subsequent obligations for developing and submitting implementation plans (SIPs) for attaining or maintaining compliance with the NAAQS. Appendix A includes a table displaying a state and county breakdown of designated nonttainment 1 The NAAQS is for NO2; nitrogen gases that are ozone precursors are referred to as NOx. 2 Federal Register 61143-61233, October 17, 2006. See also EPA's PM Regulatory Actions website at http://epa.gov/ pm/actions.html. 3 Federal Register 38652-38896, July 18, 1997. See CRS Report RL32431, Particulate Matter (PM2.5): Implementation of the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), by Robert Esworthy. 4 Federal Register 24634-24715, July 1, 1987. 5 See EPA's guidance on its website "Area Designations for 2006 24-Hour PM2.5 NAAQS - Technical Information," http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/pm/pm25_2006_techinfo.html. ¢ areas proposed by the states and by EPA for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS, as well as the final EPA designations table for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. For background of the process used to establish the 2006 particulates NAAQS and analysis of associated issues see CRS Report RL34762, The National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Particulate Matter (PM): EPA's 2006 Revisions and Associated Issues, by Robert Esworthy and James E. McCarthy. The Clean Air Act provides for two types of NAAQS: primary standards, "the attainment and maintenance of which in the judgment of the [EPA] Administrator ... are requisite to protect the public health," with "an adequate margin of safety"; and secondary standards, necessary to protect public welfare, a broad term that includes damage to crops, vegetation, property, building materials, etc.6 The primary NAAQS include a daily (24-hour) limit for both PM2.5 and PM10, and an annual limit for PM2.5 (the previous annual limit for PM10 was revoked). To attain the annual standard, the three-year average of the weighted annual arithmetic mean PM concentration at each monitor within an area must not exceed the maximum limit set by the agency. The 24-hour standards are a concentration-based percentile form, indicating the percentage of the time that a monitoring station can exceed the standard. For example, a 98th percentile 24-hour standard indicates that a monitoring station can exceed the standard 2% of the days during the year. For PM2.5 and PM10, the secondary (welfare) NAAQS are the same as the primary standards. As modified and published in the October 17, 2006 Federal Register Notice, the primary PM2.5 and PM10 standards are as follows: · PM2.5: strengthens the daily (24-hour) standard, which currently allows no more than 65 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3) under the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS, by setting a new limit of 35 µg/m3, based on the three-year average of the 98th percentile of 24-hour PM2.5 concentrations; retains the annual standard at 15 µg/m3. · PM10: retains the daily (24-hour) standard at 150 µg/m3 set in 1987 but changes from the 99th percentile to no more than one exceedance per year on average over three years; eliminates the annual maximum concentration (50 µg/m3) standard for PM10.7 · As will be shown in more detail in the following section, strengthening the daily standard for PM2.5 will have implications for those counties and partial counties 6 The use of public welfare in the CAA "includes, but is not limited to, effects on soils, water, crops, vegetation, manmade materials, animals, wildlife, weather, visibility, and climate, damage to and deterioration of property, and hazards to transportation, as well as effects on economic values and on personal comfort and well-being, whether caused by transformation, conversion, or combination with other air pollutants" (42 U.S.C. 7602(h)). 7 Based on the findings in the EPA PM criteria document and staff paper, and the CASAC's concurrence, that the studies reviewed do not provide sufficient evidence regarding long-term exposure to warrant continuation of an annual standard, see 71 Federal Register 2653, Section III. Rationale for Proposed Decision on Primary PM10 Standards, January 17, 2006. ¢ designated nonattainment for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. With only a few exceptions, most of the designated nonattainment areas for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS were not meeting the annual standard, but were meeting the daily (24- hour) standard. Since the PM10 standard was not strengthened, no new areas will be designated as nonattainment for PM10. To the contrary, a few counties previously designated nonattainment have been determined by EPA to be in attainment since the 2006 revisions to the particulates NAAQS.8 Designating geographical areas not achieving the established NAAQS based on monitoring and analysis of relevant air quality data, is a critical step in NAAQS implementation. Section 107(d) of the CAA (42 U.S.C. 7407) establishes the process for designating attainment and nonattainment areas and setting their boundaries, but allows the EPA Administrator some discretion in determining what the final boundaries of the areas will be. Areas are identified as "nonattainment" when they violate or contribute to the violation of NAAQS. The NAAQS designation process is intended as a cooperative federal-state-tribal9 process in which states and tribes provide initial designation recommendations to EPA for consideration. In Section 107(d)(1)(A) (42 U.S.C. 7407), the statute states that the governor of each state shall submit a list to EPA of all areas in the state, "designating as ... nonattainment, any area that does not meet (or that contributes to ambient air quality in a nearby area that does not meet) an air quality standard" (emphasis added). Areas are identified as "attainment/unclassified"10 when they meet the standard or when the data are insufficient for determining compliance with the NAAQS. Following state and tribal designation submissions, the EPA Administrator has discretion to make modifications, including to the area boundaries. As required by statute (Section 107(d)1(B)(ii)), the agency must notify the states and tribes regarding any modifications, allowing them sufficient opportunity to demonstrate why a proposed modification is inappropriate, but the final determination rests with EPA. Measuring and analyzing air quality to determine where NAAQS are not being met is a key step in determining an area's designation. Attainment or nonattainment designations are made primarily on the basis of three-years of federally referenced monitoring data.11 EPA began 8 See discussion, and map in Appendix A depicting PM10 nonattainment areas, in CRS Report RL34762, The National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Particulate Matter (PM): EPA's 2006 Revisions and Associated Issues, by Robert Esworthy and James E. McCarthy. 9 Though not required to do so, tribes have been encouraged to submit recommendations. The area designation requirements under the CAA (Section 107) are specific with respect to states, but not to tribes. The EPA follows the same designation process for tribes per Sections 110(o) and 301(d) of the CAA and pursuant to the 1988 Tribal Authority Rule, which specifies that tribes shall be treated as states in selected cases (40 CFR Part 49). For information regarding tribes that have participated in the PM2.5 designation recommendation process, see http://www.epa.gov/ pmdesignations. 10 Section 107(d)(1)(A)(iii) of the CAA provides that any area that EPA cannot designate on the basis of available information as meeting or not meeting the standards should be designated unclassifiable. 11 A federally referenced monitor is one that has been accepted for use by EPA for comparison of the NAAQS by (continued...) ¢ developing methods for monitoring fine particles at the time the PM2.5 NAAQS were being finalized in 1997, and operation of the network of monitors for PM2.5 was phased in from 1999 through 2000. The network of monitors and their locations have been modified over time. Most recently, in a separate action in conjunction with the October 2006 publication of the revised particulates NAAQS, EPA amended its national air quality monitoring requirements, including those for monitoring particle pollution.12 The amended monitoring requirements were intended to help federal, state, and local air quality agencies by adopting improvements in monitoring technology. EPA's final designations for the 2006 particulates NAAQS are to be based on 2003-2007 monitoring data. In addition to air emission and air quality data, EPA considers a number of other relevant factors,13 and recommends that states apply these factors in their determinations in conjunction with other technical guidance. Examples of these factors include population density and degree of urbanization (including commercial development), growth rates, traffic and commuting patterns, weather and transport patterns, and geography/topography. States and Tribes may submit additional information on factors they believe are relevant for EPA to consider. Nonattainment areas include those counties where pollutant concentrations exceed the standard as well as those that contribute to exceedance of the standard in adjoining counties. Entire metropolitan areas tend to be designated nonattainment, even if only one county in the area has readings worse than the standard. In addition to identifying whether monitored violations are occurring, States' or Tribes' boundary recommendations for an area are to also show that violations are not occurring in those portions of the recommended area that have been excluded, and that they do not contain emission sources that contribute to the observed violations. In December 2007, 20 states provided EPA with recommended nonattainment boundaries for the 2006 revised particulates NAAQS based on 2004 to 2006 monitoring data. The states identified 46 areas comprising 116 counties, including 31 partial counties (see Table A-1 for state by state county/area nonattainment designations). The recommended designations are primarily based on 2004-2006 monitoring data, criteria and technical guidance from EPA and assistance from its regional offices, and states' own relevant information and criteria. The CAA does not specifically require combining neighboring counties within the same nonattainment area, but it does require the use of metropolitan statistical area boundaries in the more severely polluted areas (Section 107(d)(4)(A)(iv)). However, unlike the 1997 PM2.5 (...continued) meeting the design specifications and certain precision and bias (performance) specifications (40 CFR Part 58). 12 Revisions to Ambient Air Monitoring Regulations, final rule, 71 Federal Register 61235-61328, October 17, 2006. http://www.epa.gov/air/particlepollution/actions.html. 13 See Chapter 5 of the EPA Technical Support Document for December 17, 2004 final designations for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS and April 2005 modifications, for explanations of these factors; available at http://www.epa.gov/ pmdesignations/1997standards/tech.htm. 14 For detailed PM2.5 state/county geographical designation recommendations by EPA and those from individual states and tribes, for the 1997 and for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS, see http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations. ¢ standards, Metropolitan Statistical Areas or Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Areas15 did not generally serve as the "presumptive boundary" for nonattainment areas under the 2006 PM2.5 standards. Rather than establish a presumption for the minimum size of an area, in its June 2007 guidance16 EPA instructed states and tribes to evaluate each area on a case-by-case basis. EPA expected that nonattainment areas for the 2006 24-hour PM2.5 would include counties with monitors violating the 24-hour standard and nearby counties that contribute to that violation. EPA also recommended that states and tribes consider using common boundaries for areas to be designated as nonattainment for both the annual and 24-hour PM2.5 standards. This information in conjunction with air emission and air quality data, as well other relevant factors as recommended in EPA's guidance, such as population density, growth rates, traffic and commuting patterns, weather and transport patterns, and geography/topography, were used by states in determining the boundaries for the designated areas. As required by statute, EPA responded to the states with its modifications to the area designation recommendations for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS for the 24-hour standard in letters dated August 19, 2008. The EPA solicited the states' comments and additional information for consideration in determining the final designations.17 As it did in implementing the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS and has done with other NAAQS, EPA used its discretion to expand the size of nonattainment areas (added more counties or portions of counties) or to combine areas that a state listed as separate areas into a single larger unit, EPA also combined nonattainment counties across state lines into the same nonattainment area, if the counties are part of the same metropolitan area. The counties that EPA has identified as nonattainment for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS are indicated in the map in Figure 1 on the next page. While the identified areas can seem small compared with the approximately 3,000 counties in the United States, nonattainment counties tend to have larger populations than those in attainment: for example, nearly 90 million people (about 30% of the U.S. population) live in the 205 counties designated nonattainment for the current 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. The map distinguishes those counties not previously designated nonattainment for the PM2.5 NAAQS and those areas that are being designated for the 2006 PM2.5 24-hour standard, that were previously designated nonattainment for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. The agency identified 57 areas in 26 states, comprising 215 counties (169 counties and portions of 46 additional counties) for designation as nonattainment for the revised 2006 24-hour PM2.5 standard (see table in Appendix A for state by state county/area nonattainment designations). The EPA's designations do not identify counties violating the annual standard, as the level is unchanged from the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. Areas include whole and partial counties and, as with the designations for the 1997 PM2.5 and other criteria pollutant NAAQS standards, several areas include counties from multiple states. 15 As defined by the Office of Management Budget. For more information on metropolitan areas, see http://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/aboutmetro.html. 16 See EPA's guidance on its website "Area Designations for 2006 24-Hour PM2.5 NAAQS--Technical Information," http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/pm/pm25_2006_techinfo.html. 17 For information regarding EPA's August 19, 2008 designations, see http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations/ 2006standards/regs.htm#2. ¢ tsuguA s'APE--SQAAN MP 6002 eht rof tnemniattanoN ni seitnuoC .1 erugiF5.2 snoitadnemmoceR 'setatS ot esnopseR 8002 3 m/g 53( dradnats ruoh-42 eht gnita loiv( )y lno ) tnemniattanoN etatS ot sesnopseR s'APE no desab ecivreS hcraeseR lanoissergnoC eht yb deraperP :ecruoS seitnuoc laitraP .snoitangised MP rof etisbew s'APE morf delipmoc atad htiw ,8002 ,91 tsuguA ,snoitadnemmoceR ./snoitangisedmp/vog.ape.www//:ptth .seitnuoc elohw sa pam eht no nwohs era States (and tribal groups) had 120 days to respond to EPA's recommendations, and the agency also issued a notice18 for a 30-day public comment period. EPA expects to finalize these nonattainment designations (based on 2005-2007 monitoring data19) by December 18, 2008, with an effective date of April 2009. The date of final designations may be extended up to one year, but no later than December 18, 2009, if the Administrator determines that the agency has insufficient information to promulgate the designations. In responding to EPA's proposal for Nonattainment designations for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS, a number of states challenged the agency and maintained support for their original recommendations. The final EPA designations for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS reflected minor modifications to its proposal; primarily, 19 counties were removed from the list of nonattainment areas, and other counties were redefined by designating only specified locations ("partial") within the county as nonattainment. EPA also subsequently denied six petitions submitted to the agency requesting reconsideration of the previous designations of one or more full or partial counties as nonattainment for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS.20 18 73 Federal Register 51257, September 2, 2008. 19 Revisions to Ambient Air Monitoring Regulations, final rule, 71 Federal Register 61235-61328, October 17, 2006 http://www.epa.gov/air/particlepollution/actions.html. 20 The petitions were for counties in Georgia, Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, and West Virginia; see http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations/1997standards/regs.htm. ¢ As of August 2008, EPA's final designations for nonattainment of the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS (those areas with or contributing to air quality levels exceeding the annual and 24-hour standards) included all or part of 205 counties in 20 states and the District of Columbia.21 As indicated in the map in Figure 2 the designated nonattainment areas for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS are primarily concentrated in the central, mid-Atlantic, and southeastern states east of the Mississippi River, as well as in California. More than 2,900 counties in 30 states have been designated attainment/unclassifiable for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. sdradnatS MP 7991 saerA tnemniattanoN detangiseD yltnerruC .2 erugiF 5.2 )dradnats )3m/g 56( ruoh-42 ro/dna )3m/g 51( launna eht gnitaloiv( /rao/vog.ape.www//:ptth 6002 ,52 .tcO ,spaM dna shparG 6002 - noisiveR sdradnatS MP ,APE .S.U :secruoS ainavlysnneP ni aera tnemniattanon ytnuoc-3 eht sedulcni pam ehT .spam#lmth.6002versqaan/noitullopelcitrap ro iiawaH ni saera tnemniattanon MP on era ereht ;8002 tsuguA ni tnemniatta ni eb ot APE yb denimreted 5.2 .pam APE eht no dedulcni ton erew hcihw ,aksalA 21 See EPA's PM2.5 Designations website at http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations. See also CRS Report RL32431, Particulate Matter (PM2.5): Implementation of the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), by Robert Esworthy. .SQAAN 5.2MP 7991 eht rof sdradnats launna lanif eht htiw denibmoc ,atad gnirotinom 6002-4002 no desab SQAAN 5.2MP 6002 eht rof seiradnuob aera tnemniattanon rof snoitadnemmocer 'setatS ot esnopser ni 8002 tsuguA APE yb ylno ruoh-42 eht rof detangised esoht tcelfer sdradnats 6002 eht rof elbat eht ni seitnuoc ehT :etoN 5.2 .SQAAN MP 7991 eht rof snoitangised aera lanif 6002 rebotcO eht no desab era dradnats launna eht rof seitnuoc tnemniattanoN ;setats ot srettel 8002 tsuguA rieht ni APE yb dednemmocer esoht no desab era dradnats ruoh-42 eht rof seitnuoc tnemniattanoN ./snoitangisedmp/vog.ape.www//:ptth snoitangised MP rof etisbew s'APE morf delipmoc atad htiw ecivreS hcraeseR lanoissergnoC eht yb deraperP :ecruoS 15 0 15 291 1 391 ylno dradnats launna eht gnideecxE 62 23 85 0 0 0 ylno dradnats ruoh-42 eht gnideecxE sdradnats 341 31 651 0 21 21 launna dna ruoh-42 eht gnideecxE 022 54 562 291 31 502 dradnats eht gnideecxe latoT ).C.D dna seitnuoc laitrap gnidulcni( seitnuoc fo rebmuN tsaE tseW lanoitaN tsaE tseW lanoitaN 3m/g 53/51 3m/g 56/51 dradnatS 6002 dradnatS 7991 )3m/g ruoh-42/launna( SQAAN MP 5.2 5.2 SQAAN MP 6002 eht rof tnemniattanoN eb ot detcejorP 5.2 dna SQAAN MP 7991 eht rof tnemniattanoN detangiseD seitnuoC .1 elbaT modified under the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS, identified by EPA in its August 2008 letters to states. standard under the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS, with the nonattainment areas for the 24-hour standard as in Figure 3 below, overlaps the final nonattainment designations for the annual and 24-hour tribes), and those counties in EPA's final area designations for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. The map nonattainment with the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS (based on EPA's August 2008 letters to states and Table 1 below illustrates the comparative geographic distribution of counties projected to be in both the 24-hour and the annual standard. result in an increased number of areas being designated nonttainment based on exceedances of exceeding both the 24-hour and the annual standards. Thus, tightening the 24-hour standard will 1997 PM2.5 nonattainment areas were only exceeding the annual standard; only 12 counties were overlap with EPA's final nonattainment designations for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. Most of the designated nonattainment for PM2.5 for the first time but the majority of the counties identified Based on EPA's recommendations for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS, a few counties would be ¢ 5.2 .seitnuoc elohw sa pam eht no nwohs era seitnuoc laitraP .SQAAN MP 7991 eht rof snoitangised aera lanif 6002 rebotcO eht no desab era dradnats launna eht rof seitnuoc tnemniattanon ;setats ot srettel 8002 tsuguA rieht ni APE yb dednemmocer esoht no desab era dradnats ruoh-42 eht rof seitnuoc tnemniattanoN ./snoitangisedmp/vog.ape.www//:ptth snoitangised MP rof etisbew s'APE morf delipmoc atad htiw ecivreS hcraeseR lanoissergnoC eht yb deraperP :ecruoS )dradnats )3m/g 56( ruoh-42 ro/dna )3m/g 51( launna eht gnitaloiv( 5.2 SQAAN MP 6002 eht rof tnemniattanoN detangiseD eb ot detcejorP seitnuoC .3 erugiF ¢ ¢ It is difficult to anticipate what effect this may have on current control measures in these areas. In some areas, current measures focused on achieving attainment for the annual standard may be sufficient to attain the 24-hour standard as well. Other areas may require supplementing current measures or significant modifications to ensure compliance over a shorter averaging period. The impacts could vary substantially from area to area within a state and from state to state depending on many factors, including the type and locations of primary emission sources, current control measures, the extent to which the area is exceeding the standard, topography, weather, etc. Once designations take effect, they become an important component of state, local and tribal governments' efforts to reduce fine particle pollution. The designations govern what subsequent regulatory actions states, tribes, and EPA must take in order to improve or preserve air quality in each area. Under the CAA, EPA sets the nationwide standard for criteria pollutants, and EPA and states are responsible for placing limits on emissions that contribute to criteria pollution and for regulating entities emitting criteria pollutants. Areas designated attainment/unclassifiable will not have to take steps to improve air quality but under the statute they must take steps to prevent air quality from deteriorating to unhealthy levels. For those areas designated nonattainment, state, local and tribal governments must outline detailed control requirements in plans demonstrating how they will meet the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS. These plans, defined as state implementation plans and referred to as SIPs (TIPs for tribal implementation plans), must be submitted to EPA three years after the effective date of Agency's final designations. If states fail to develop an adequate implementation plan, EPA can impose one. SIPs include pollution control measures that will be implemented by federal, state, and local governments, and rely on models of the impact on air quality of projected emission reductions to demonstrate attainment. SIPs must identify, among other items, specific regulations, emissions limitations, and monitoring provisions that will bring an area into compliance. Under the CAA, states are required to meet the 2006 PM2.5 standard "as expeditiously as practicable," but no later than five years from the date of designation--April 2014--unless an extension allowed under the CAA is granted.22 States and local governments are required to develop and implement new or revised plans (SIPs) for addressing emissions in those areas that do not meet the 2006 revised PM2.5 NAAQS. Several counties identified by EPA in its August 2008 letters to states would be designated as nonattainment for the PM2.5 NAAQS for the first time. As noted earlier, a large portion of the 22 Under section 172(a)(2)(A) of the CAA, EPA may grant an area an extension of the initial attainment date for one to five years (in no case later than 10 years after the designation date for the area). A state requesting an extension must submit an implementation plan (SIP) by the required deadline that includes, among other things, sufficient information demonstrating that attainment by the initial attainment date is "impracticable." ¢ nonattainment areas for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS identified by EPA in August 2008 overlap with those areas designated nonattainment for 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS. However, as discussed in the previous section, these counties are unable to meet the 24-hour standard, whereas previously they were designated nonattainment based on their inability to meet the annual standard. Exceeding both an annual and 24-hour standard may have implications with respect to existing SIPs, the extent of which could vary significantly from area to area based on many factors. In some cases SIPs may require substantial modifications, while in other cases the current SIP may be sufficient to achieve compliance with both standards. In a February 2006 advance notice of proposed rulemaking (ANPR)23 outlining an implementation plan for the transition to the 2006 particulates standards, EPA indicated that it would be beneficial for states to consider control strategies that may be useful in attaining the 2006 revised PM2.5 NAAQS when developing their strategies for the 1997 PM2.5 standards. The EPA typically publishes an "implementation rule" which describes the requirements that states and tribes must meet in their implementation plans to achieve and maintain attainment.24 The rule also provides guidance and procedures for establishing controls to achieve and maintain attainment. In addition to detailing provisions necessary to demonstrate how the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS will be attained, the implementation rule generally includes guidance for submitting a SIP when reaching attainment within the five-year requirement is impractical. The implementation rule takes into account existing (oft times pending) federal regulations that contribute to controlling criteria pollutants and their precursors.25 The EPA expects that in many cases implementing national strategies--including the 1999 visibility protection regulations (Regional Haze Rule);26 voluntary diesel engine retrofit programs; and federal standards scheduled to be implemented between 2004 and 2010 on cars, light trucks, heavy-duty, and nonroad diesel engines--would provide a framework for achieving attainment with the PM2.5 NAAQS. However, one of the key federal regulations, EPA's May 2005 Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR),27 was vacated in a July 11, 2008, decision (North Carolina v. EPA), by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit.28 CAIR was expected to serve as the 23 71 Federal Register 6718, February 9, 2006. 24 EPA published its final implementation rule for the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS On April 25, 2007. The rule addresses attainment demonstration and modeling; local emission reduction measures, including reasonably available control technology (RACT), reasonably available control measures (RACM), and reasonable further progress (RFP); regional emission reduction strategies; innovative program guidance; emission inventory requirements; transportation conformity; and stationary source test methods (72 Federal Register 20586-20667, April 25, 2007). 25 The term precursor refers to a directly emitted pollutant that, when released to the atmosphere, forms, or contributes to the formation of a secondary pollutant for which an ambient air quality standard has been adopted. 26 64 Federal Register 35714-35774, July 1, 1999. See CRS Report RL32483, Visibility, Regional Haze, and the Clean Air Act: Status of Implementation, by Larry Parker and John Blodgett, also CRS Report RL32927, Clean Air Interstate Rule: Review and Analysis, by Larry Parker. 27 Promulgated under the CAA, 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq., 70 Federal Register 25162, May 12, 2005. 28 531 F.3d 896 (D.C. Cir. 2008). For a more detailed discussion of the court's decision and its implications, see CRS Report RL34589, Clean Air After the CAIR Decision: Back to Square One?, by James E. McCarthy, Larry Parker, and Robert Meltz. ¢ primary tool to assist downwind states in meeting the PM2.5 (and 8-hour ozone) NAAQS by mitigating interstate transport of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from electric generating units that contribute to the formation of PM2.5.29 The D.C. Circuit Court's decision to vacate CAIR puts the focus back on § 126 petitions as the available means to address interstate transport of air pollutants in the immediate future. Under § 126 of the CAA, areas may petition EPA to impose controls on upwind sources that significantly contribute to their nonattainment of the standard. EPA has never granted a § 126 petition in the manner outlined by the statute. The D.C. Circuit's decision regarding the CAIR could result in significant delays, and has garnered attention in Congress.30 Designated nonattainment areas also are subject to new source review (NSR) requirements. Enacted as part of the 1977 CAA Amendments and modified in the 1990 CAA Amendments, NSR is designed to ensure that newly constructed facilities, or substantially modified existing facilities, do not result in violation of applicable air quality standards. NSR provisions outline permitting requirements both for construction of new major pollution sources and for modifications to existing major pollution sources. The specific NSR requirements for affected sources depend on whether the sources are subject to Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) or nonattainment provisions.31 ¢ If new or revised SIPs for attainment establish or revise a transportation-related emissions budget, or add or delete transportation control measures (TCMs), they will trigger "conformity" determinations. Transportation conformity is required by the CAA, Section 176(c),32 to prohibit federal funding and approval for highway and transit projects unless they are consistent with ("conform to") the air quality goals established by a SIP, and will not cause new air quality violations, worsen existing violations, or delay timely attainment of the national ambient air quality standards. EPA promulgated several transportation conformity rules and rule amendments since the statute was strengthened as part of the 1990 CAA.33 The rules generally establish the criteria and 29 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a precursor contributing to the formation of PM2.5 concentrations, and NOx is a precursor (a pollutant that is transformed in air to form another air pollutant) contributing to the formation of both ozone and PM2.5 concentrations. EPA has concluded that SO2 and NOx emissions, through the phenomenon of air pollution transport, contribute significantly to downwind nonattainment, or interfere with maintenance, of the PM2.5 and 8-hour ozone NAAQS (70 Federal Register 25162, May 12, 2005). 30 For a more detailed discussion of the court's decision and its implications, see CRS Report RL34589, Clean Air After the CAIR Decision: Back to Square One?, by James E. McCarthy, Larry Parker, and Robert Meltz, also see related discussion in CRS Report RL32431, Particulate Matter (PM2.5): Implementation of the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), by Robert Esworthy. 31 See Clean Air Act, Part D--Plan Requirements for Nonattainment Areas, sections 171-178, codified at 40 CFR 52.24(f)(10). 32 42 U.S.C. 7506(c). 33 EPA conformity rule promulgated on November 24, 1993 (58 Federal Register 62188), and subsequently amended; see EPA's "Chronological List of Transportation Conformity Rulemakings" at http://www.epa.gov/otaq/stateresources/ transconf/conf-regs-c.htm, and "Transportation Conformity Regulations Current as of January 2008," EPA420-B-08- (continued...) ¢ procedures for determining whether transportation plans, transportation improvement programs (TIPs), or projects conform to a state's SIP. The designation of geographical areas unable to meet the NAAQS is a critical step in NAAQS implementation, and historically has been an issue of concern and debate among EPA, states and tribes, various stakeholders, and many Members of Congress. The EPA's 2006 tightening of the PM2.5 standards will increase the number of areas (typically defined by counties or portions of counties) in nonattainment, and subsequently potentially result in an encumbrance on states to achieve compliance. In August 2008 letters to states, EPA provided its proposed modifications to nonattainment designation recommendations submitted by states for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS. EPA intends to finalize the designations for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS by December 18, 2008, although this determination could be delayed up to a year if the Administrator determines that the agency has insufficient information. Historically, there have been disagreements between EPA and states, and other stakeholders, with regard to final NAAQS nonattainment designations. Following the final nonattainment determination, State, local and tribal governments are to outline detailed control requirements in plans (or SIPs) demonstrating how areas designated nonattainment will meet the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS. Although a large portion of the nonattainment areas for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS identified by EPA in August 2008 overlap with those areas designated nonattainment for 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS, these new designations are based on the 24- hour standard, whereas the previous designations were based on the annual standard. The implications of this with regard to SIPs could vary significantly from area to area based on numerous factors. States would not be required to submit SIPs until 2012, and would not have to meet the PM2.5 standard until 2014 (or April 2019, if qualified for an extension34). The EPA is not requiring new nonattainment designations for PM10, and it does not anticipate any significant incremental cost impacts associated with the change in the PM10 standard. The associated impacts on specific geographical nonattainment areas would be speculative at best, because compliance with the 2006 revised particulates NAAQS is several years off. With regard to the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS, states with nonattainment areas must be in compliance with the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS by April 5, 2010, unless they are granted an extension. Implementation of the 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS, already delayed considerably, is threatened with further delay as a result of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit's July 11, 2008, decision (North Carolina v. EPA) that would vacate the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR).35 Further delays (...continued) 001, January 2008, http://www.epa.gov/otaq/stateresources/transconf/regs/420b08001.pdf. 34 Under § 172(a)(2)(A) of the CAA, EPA may grant an area an extension of the initial attainment date for one to five years (not later than 10 years after the designation date for the area). A state requesting an extension must submit an implementation plan (SIP) by the required deadline that includes, among other things, sufficient information demonstrating that attainment by the initial attainment date is "impracticable." 35 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq. ¢ in implementing 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS would have direct implications for implementing the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS. Concerns regarding looming key implementation milestones and attainment deadlines for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS, and associated delays effecting implementation of the current 1997 PM2.5 NAAQS, will remain an issue of considerable debate for many stakeholders and interest groups, as well as Congress. 37 See [http://www.epa.gov/oar/particlepollution/naaqsrev2006.html]. Holmstead to EPA Regional Administrators, available at [http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/pm/pm25_guide.html]. EPA memorandum, April 21, 2003, from the Office of Air and Radiation Assistant Administrator Jeffrey R. 36 the agency's projected timeline for the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS.37 provided the nonbinding guidance for implementation of the 1997 PM2.5 area designations,36 and schedule outlined in an April 21, 2003, memorandum to EPA regional administrators that also milestones are driven primarily by statutory requirements. The table follows an EPA milestone implementing the 1997 and the 2006 PM2.5 NAAQS, including actual completions. These The timeline presented in Table A-1 above reflects the most recent key milestone dates for .seciton retsigeR laredeF tnaveler dna ,stnemucod ecnadiug dna steehs tcaf ycnegA noitcetorP latnemnorivnE .S.U no desab ecivreS hcraeseR lanoissergnoC eht yb deraperP :ecruoS )noisnetxe htiw sraey net ot pu ;etad evitceffe snoitangised aera lanif retfa sraey evif nihtiw 9102-4102 lirpA 5102-0102 lirpA deriuqer( tnemniatta rof enildaed ecnailpmoc yrotutats SQAAN )detnarg noisnetxe sselnu )gniogno( etad evitceffe snoitangised aera lanif retfa sraey eerht deriuqer( 2102 lirpA 8002 lirpA )sPIS( snalp noitatnemelpmi desiver timbus sebirt dna setatS AN 7002 ,52 lirpA 5.2 elur noitatnemelpmi MP lanif setaglumorp APE )noitangised tnemniattanon )detcejorp( fo etad evitceffe eht fo raey eno nihtiw deriuqer( noitanimreted 9002 ,81 rebmeceD 6002 ,5 lirpA ytimrofnoc timbus stcejorp noitatropsnart wen htiw setatS )noitacilbup retsigeR laredeF retfa syad 9002 lirpA 5002 ,5 lirpA 09 naht retal ton 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weN ciassaP ciassaP ciassaP sirroM sirroM sirroM )p( seitnuoC laitraP dna seitnuoC emaN aerA/etatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS launnA ruoH-42 ruoH-42 ruoH-42 snoitangiseD snoitangiseD laniF dednemmoceR dednemmoceR laniF etatS APE SQAAN MP 79915.2 5.2 SQAAN MP 6002 ¢ )p( enaL )p( enaL RO ,egdirkaO )p( htamalK )p( htamalK RO ,sllaF htamalK NOGERO llubmurT llubmurT gninohaM gninohaM HO ,nwotsgnuoY tnomleB HO-VW ,gnileehW VW-HO nosreffeJ nosreffeJ nosreffeJ ,notrieW -ellivnebuetS HO-VW notgnihsaW notgnihsaW notgnihsaW ,atteiraM -grubsrekraP otoicS otoicS ecnerwaL ecnerwaL )p( aillaG )p( aillaG HO-YK-VW )p( smadA )p( smadA ,dnalhsA-notgnitnuH yremogtnoM yremogtnoM yremogtnoM eneerG eneerG eneerG kralC kralC HO ,dleifgnirpS-notyaD gnikciL gnikciL gnikciL nilknarF nilknarF nilknarF dleifriaF dleifriaF dleifriaF erawaleD erawaleD erawaleD )p( notcohsoC )p( notcohsoC HO ,submuloC timmuS timmuS timmuS egatroP egatroP egatroP anideM anideM anideM niaroL niaroL niaroL ekaL ekaL ekaL agohayuC agohayuC agohayuC HO ,niaroL )p( alubathsA )p( alubathsA -norkA-dnalevelC )p( seitnuoC laitraP dna seitnuoC emaN aerA/etatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS launnA ruoH-42 ruoH-42 ruoH-42 snoitangiseD snoitangiseD laniF dednemmoceR dednemmoceR laniF etatS APE SQAAN MP 7991 5.2 5.2 SQAAN MP 6002 ¢ kroY kroY kroY AP ,kroY skreB skreB skreB AP ,gnidaeR dnaleromtseW dnaleromtseW dnaleromtseW notgnihsaW notgnihsaW notgnihsaW )p( ecnerwaL )p( ecnerwaL )p( ecnerwaL )p( eneerG )p( eneerG reltuB reltuB reltuB revaeB revaeB revaeB )p( gnortsmrA )p( gnortsmrA )p( gnortsmrA AP ,yellaV )p( ynehgellA )p( ynehgellA )p( ynehgellA revaeB-hgrubsttiP aihpledalihP aihpledalihP aihpledalihP yremogtnoM yremogtnoM yremogtnoM erawaleD erawaleD erawaleD retsehC retsehC retsehC ED-JN-AP ,notgnimliW skcuB skcuB skcuB -aihpledalihP )p( ynehgellA )p( ynehgellA )p( ynehgellA AP ,notrialC-ytrebiL retsacnaL retsacnaL retsacnaL AP ,retsacnaL )p( anaidnI )p( anaidnI )p( anaidnI airbmaC airbmaC airbmaC AP ,nwotsnhoJ nonabeL nonabeL nonabeL nihpuaD nihpuaD nihpuaD AP ,elsilraC dnalrebmuC dnalrebmuC dnalrebmuC -nonabeL-grubsirraH notpmahtroN notpmahtroN hgiheL hgiheL AP ,nwotnellA AINAVLYSNNEP )p( seitnuoC laitraP dna seitnuoC emaN aerA/etatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS launnA ruoH-42 ruoH-42 ruoH-42 snoitangiseD snoitangiseD laniF dednemmoceR dednemmoceR laniF etatS APE SQAAN MP 7991 5.2 5.2 SQAAN MP 6002 ¢ mailliW ecnirP kraP sassanaM sassanaM nuoduoL hcruhC sllaF oC xafriaF ytiC xafriaF notgnilrA AV airdnaxelA -DM-CD ,notgnihsaW AINIGRIV )p( rebeW )p( rebeW )p( hatU )p( hatU )p( eleooT ekaL tlaS ekaL tlaS sivaD sivaD )p( redlE xoB TU ,ytiC ekaL tlaS )p( ehcaC )p( ehcaC DI-TU ,nagoL HATU )p( enaoR )p( enaoR noduoL noduoL xonK xonK tnuolB tnuolB NT ,ettelloF nosrednA nosrednA aL -ellivreiveS-ellivxonK trawetS yremogtnoM syerhpmuH YK-NT ,ellivskralC AG notlimaH -NT-LA ,agoonattahC EESSENNET )p( seitnuoC laitraP dna seitnuoC emaN aerA/etatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS launnA ruoH-42 ruoH-42 ruoH-42 snoitangiseD snoitangiseD laniF dednemmoceR dednemmoceR laniF etatS APE SQAAN MP 79915.2 5.2 SQAAN MP 6002 ¢ .setisbew snoitangised MP APE morf atad gnisu SRC yb delipmoC :ecruoS seitnuoc laitrap 23 seitnuoc laitrap 3 seitnuoc laitrap 13 seitnuoc laitrap 64 seitnuoc elohw 671 seitnuoc elohw 9 seitnuoc elohw 611 seitnuoc elohw 961 saera 93 saera 2 saera 64 saera 75 .C.D dna setats 02 etats 1 setats 02 setats 52 SLATOT ahsekuaW enicaR eekuawliM IW ,enicaR-eekuawliM enaD aibmuloC IW ,oobaraB-nosidaM nworB IW ,yaB neerG NISNOCSIW oihO llahsraM HO-VW ,gnileehW kcocnaH kcocnaH kcocnaH VW-HO ekoorB ekoorB ekoorB ,notrieW -ellivnebuetS dooW dooW HO-VW )p( stnasaelP )p( stnasaelP ,atteiraM -grubsrekraP ailagnonoM VW ,nwotnagroM DM ,nwotsregaH yelekreB -VW ,grubsnitraM enyaW enyaW )p( nosaM )p( nosaM HO-YK-VW llebaC llebaC ,dnalhsA-notgnitnuH mantuP mantuP mantuP ahwanaK ahwanaK ahwanaK VW ,notselrahC AINIGRIV TSEW )p( ecreiP )p( ecreiP AW ,amocaT-elttaeS NOTGNIHSAW )p( seitnuoC laitraP dna seitnuoC emaN aerA/etatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS dradnatS launnA ruoH-42 ruoH-42 ruoH-42 snoitangiseD snoitangiseD laniF dednemmoceR dednemmoceR laniF etatS APE 5.2 SQAAN MP 7991 5.2 SQAAN MP 6002 ¢ ¢ Robert Esworthy Specialist in Environmental Policy resworthy@crs.loc.gov, 7-7236 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ For other versions of this document, see http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS-R40096